Aptitude

Aptitude:

Aptitude refers to those qualities characterizing a persons way of behavior which serve to indicate how well he can learn to meet & solve a certain specified kinds of problem.

People differ in terms of performance and human activity like leadership, music, art, teaching etc.

Example:

Musical training, steno typist’s job.

Individual possess certain specific aptitude or ability in addition to intellectual abilities or intelligence, which helps them to achieve success in some specific occupations or activities. Thus aptitude means specific ability or capacity disitinct from general intellectual ability that helps to acquire proficiency or achievement in specific field.

Types of aptitude Tests:

1. Mechanical Aptitude test
2. Musical aptitude test
3. Art judgement test
4. Professional aptitude test
5. Scholastic aptitude test
6. Clerical aptitude test

Humanistic Approach of learning : Carl Roger’s Theory of Experiential Learning:

Humanistic Approach of learning : Carl Roger’s Theory of Experiential Learning:

Experiential Learning:

1. Vital to one’s progress & welfare
2. Associated with an application of the acquired knowledge
3. Learning psychological principles . Example Engines in order to repair a car.
4. Learner centered.
5. Cares for needs & wants of Learner.

Characteristics or qualities of experiential learning:

1. Personal involvement of the learner.
2. Self initiated
3. Self evaluation
4. Pervasive effect on a learner.

Rogers believe: Strength & potentialities of human beings. Human beings have a natural inclination for learning & a desire to grow & progress.

Role of the Teacher & the parents:

1. To help children in their ingerent desire for personal change & growth.
2. To care for & facilitate such learning which helps the children to grow & develop according to their requirements.

Objectives of experiential learning:

1. To Arrange favourable & positive climate
2. To help learners to have purpose / objectives of his/ her learning.
3. To organize learning resources & making them available to the learners.
4. Balancing intellectual & emotional components of learning.
5. To share feelings & thoughts with learners in a democratic way.

Basic conditions facilitating learning:

1. Self threat of learner is minimum.
2. Learning resources & climate are in learners favour.
3. Complete participation of learners, control its nature & direction.
4. Self evaluation for progress & success.
5. Realizes importance of learning
6. Develops an openness as well as willingness to learn.

Experiential learning advocates:

1. Humanistic  & learner centered approach in classroom.
2. To make learning process more humane.
3. As  per the needs & interest of the learners.
4. Personal social growth and development
5. Emphasizing more on application than on theory alone.

Gestalt's Laws of learning

Gestalt laws of learning:

1. Laws of similarity:

Grasp things which are similar. Similar ideas and experiences gets associated together. An object revives another object which resembles it. Example: seeing a man & remembering an intimate friend by some resemblance in his personal appearance though never saw them together in past.

A photo reminds us of the person when it represents.

2. Laws of proximity:

Perceptual groups are favoured according to the nearness of their respective parts. Items form groups if they are spaced together. Example Traingle & cirlce

3. Laws of closure:

Satisified & more stable close areas than the unclosed ones. Closed areas form in groups. Incomplete situation of perception problem is not solved. Perception possible when separate parts together in a closed perceptual figure, consisting of achieving goal.

4. Laws of continuity:

Experiences occurred together. Simultaneously & close succession which tends towards reviving one another. Example: Perception of ripe mango suggests idea of its sweet taste & flavor. Because this ideas are perceive together in the past.

Idea of inkpot suggest idea of pen

Idea of bat suggest idea of ball

5. Laws of contrasts:

Perception or an idea tends to suggest its contrary opposite. Example: Adversity reminds a person of his days of prosperity. Heat of summer suggests the cold of winter.

On the basis of above principles children should be taught tune or melody rather than separate notes. Whole dance pattern rather than steps. Simple meaningful sentences rather than discrete words.

Factors and educational implications of insight learning

Insightful learning depends on certain factors:

1. Experience:

Example: Problems of modern mathematics solve unless he is well acquainted with its symbolic language.

2. Intelligence:

More intelligent greater will be his insight.

3. Learning Situation:

Insight occurs when the learning situation is so arranged that all  the necessary aspects are open to view.

4. Initial Efforts:

Insightful learning has to pass through the trial & error but this stage does not last ling it should be in the form of an initial effort to open the way for learning.

5. Repetition & generalization:

Obtained solution of a problem is implement in another situation demanding similar type of solution

Educational implications of Gestalt theory of learning:

1. Learning purposeful & goal oriented.
2. Motivation to the learner
3. Acquaint with specific aims & purposes of the learning.
4. Emphasis on situation as a whole – maxim from whole to parts.

Example: To learn or memorize a poem, present as a whole. After being read & understood as a whole, break into parts or stanzas  as for effective memorized.

5. Organization of a perceptual fields & learning material as a whole.

Learning cannot be related to subject or skill. It should be collection of isolated facts, informations or unrelated behaviuoral acts. Contributes in organization of curriculum, scheme of studies, work plan & procedure of planning the schedule of learning or teaching of a skill or a behavior.

6. Distinction between a psychological & a logical order of presentation.

Example: to teach matter we have to proceed as subelectronic particles electrons, atoms molecules and matter.

Example: in geography: map of the world an orange and the relation of sun & earth.

7. Problem solving attitude develops
8. Encourages reasoning, develops thinking & trains imagination & creative activity

Kohlers experiment on chimpanzee

Kohlers Experiment on Chimpanzee:

Experiment – 1

1. Chimpanzee sultan inside a cage or a box.
2. Chimpanzee jump to reach the banana which was hang from the roof of the cage.
3. Not succeed.
4. Used the box as a jumping platform by placing it just below the hanging banana.
5. Got success.

Experiment – 2

1. Chimpanzee inside a cage & two or three box required.
2. To reach the banana specific arrangement of box were required.

Experiment – 3

1. Chimpanzee inside the cage & two sticks one longer than the other were placed inside the cage.
2. Chimpanzee took one after the another  stick to picked banana. Not succeed as banana was placed outside the cage.
3. One stick has hollow end so that other stick could thrust into it to form a longer stick.
4. Suddenly he joined two sticks together & reached the banana.

Experiment demonstrate role of intelligence & cognitive abilities in higher learning (Problem solving).

Thus to react intelligently

1. Identify the  problem.
2. Organize their perceptual field
3. Use insight to reach solution

Perceived situation as a whole. Perceptual field is properly organized. Problem can be solve through flashes of insight.

Example: A student may suddenly discover that in 9’s table, the sum of the digits in the answer is always 9.

9 X 5 = 45, 4 + 5 = 9 etc.

Learning of a new meaningful relationship is a result of his insightful learning.

Gestalt theory of insightful learning

        Cognitivist’s Theory of Learning (Gestalt’s Insightful Learning):

            Wolfgang Kohler originated theory. Gestalt is a german word means configuration or forms or patterns. Organised whole in contrast to a collection of parts. Example:  Flower is just not a total of petals, calyx, corolla, colour, fragrance but something mere than that. According to gestalt the total of the parts is not equal to the whole. According to him “Learning is the organism or reorganism of  behaviuor which arises from the interaction of a maturing organism & its environment. Insight is the perception of relationship between atleast 3 factors an  agent, a goal and intervening condition or obstacles. Its an Aha experience. Flash of understanding which comes to us all of sudden.

Idea of Theory:

Thing cannot be understood by the study of its constituent parts but only by the study of its as a totality or whole.

Gestalt theory focuses on idea of grouping. i.e. characteristics of stimuli that structure or interpret visual field or problem in a certain way.

Factors Determine Grouping (Law of organization):

1. Proximity: Elements grouped together according to their nearness.
2. Similarity: Similar items in some respect tend to be grouped together.
3. Closure: Elements grouped together if they complete some entity.
4. Simplicity: Elements tend to be organized into simple figures according to symmetry, regularity & smoothness.

This laws have been explained in the context of perception & problem solving.

Thorndike's laws of learning and its educational implications

Thorndike’s Laws ofLearning:

1)      Law of Readiness:-

First primary law of learning, according to him, is the ‘Law of Readiness’ or the ‘Law of Action Tendency’, which means that learning takes place when an action tendency is aroused through preparatory adjustment, set or attitude. Readiness means a preparation of action. If one is not prepared to learn, learning cannot be automatically instilled in him, for example, unless the typist, in order to learn typing prepares himself to start, he would not make much progress in a lethargic & unprepared manner.

2)      Law of Exercise:-

The second law of learning is the ‘Law of Exercise’, which means that drill or practice helps in increasing efficiency and durability of learning and according to Throndike’s S-R Bond Theory, the connections are strengthened with trail or practice and the connections are weakened when trial or practice is discontinued. The ‘law of exercise’, therefore, is also understood as the ‘law of use and disuse’ in which case connections or bonds made in the brain cortex are weakened or loosened. Many examples of this case are found in case of human learning. Learning to drive a motor-car, typewriting, singing or memorizing a poem or a mathematical table, and music etc. need exercise and repetition of various movements and actions many times.

3)      Law of Effect:-

The third law is the ‘Law of Effect’, according to which the trial or steps leading to satisfaction stamps in the bond or connection. Satisfying states lead to consolidation and strengthening of the connection, whereas dis-satisfaction, annoyance or pain lead to the weakening or stamping out of the connection. In fact, the ‘law of effect’ signifies that if the response satisfy the subject, they are learnt and selected, while those which are not satisfying are eliminated. Teaching, therefore, must be pleasing. The educator must obey the tastes and interests of his pupils. In other words, greater the satisfaction stronger will be the motive to learn. Thus, intensity is an important condition of ‘law of effect’.

     Besides these three basic laws, Throndike also refer to five subordinate laws which further help to explain the learning process. These are-

4)      Law of Multiple – Response-

According to it the organism varies or changes its response till an appropriate behaviour is hit upon. Without varying the responses, the correspondence for the solution might never be elicited. If the individual wants to solve a puzzle, he is to try in different ways rather than mechanically persisting in the same way. Throndike’s cat in the puzzle box moved about and tried many ways to come out till finally it hit the latch with her paw which opened the door and it jumped out.

5)      The Law of Set or Attitude-

Learning is guided by a total set or attitude of the organism, which determines not only what the person will do but what will satisfy or annoy him. For instance, unless the cricketer sets himself to make a century, he will not be able to score more runs. A student, similarly, unless he sets to get first position and has the attitude of being at the top, would while away the time and would not learn much. Hence, learning is affected more in the individual if he is set to learn more or to excel.

   

6)      Pre- potency of Elements:-

According to this law, the learner reacts selectively to the important or essential in the situation and neglects the other features or elements which may be irrelevant or non- essential. The ability to deal with the essential or the relevant part of the situation, makes analytical and insightful learning possible. In this law of pre-potency of elements, Thorndike is really anticipating insight in learning which was more emphasized by the Gestaltions.

7)      Law of  Response by Analogy-

According to this law, the individual makes use of old experiences or acquisitions while learning a new situation. There is a tendency to utilise common elements in the new situation as existed in a similar past situation. The learning of driving a car, for instance, is facilitated by the earlier acquired skill of driving a motor cycle or even riding a bicycle because the perspective or maintaining a balance and controlling the handle helps in stearing the car.

8)      The Law of Associative Shifting-

According to this law we may get an response, of which a learner is capable, associated with any other situation to which he is sensitive. Thorndike illustrated this by the act of teaching a cat to stand up at a command. A fish was dangled before the cat while he said ‘ stand up’. After a number trails by presenting the fish after uttering the command ‘stand up’, he later ousted the fish and the over all command of ‘stand up’ was found sufficient to evoke the response in the cat by standing up or her hind legs.

      In brief implications of the Theory are-

1)      According to this theory the task can be started from the easier aspect towards its difficult side. This approach will benefit the weaker and backward children.

2)      A small child learns some skills through trial and error method only such as sitting, standing, walking, running etc. In teaching also the child rectifies the writing after commiting mistakes.

3)      In this theory more emphasis has been laid on motivation. Thus, before starting teaching in the classroom the students should be properly motivated.

4)      Practice leads a man towards maturity. Practice is the main feature of trial and error method. Practice helps in reducing the errors committed by the child in learning any concept.

5)      Habits are formed as a result of repeitition. With the help of this theory the wrong habits of the children can be modified and the good habits strengthened.

6)      The effects of rewards and punishment also affect the learning of the child. Thus, the theory lays emphasis on the use of reward and punishment in the class by the teacher.

7)      The theory may be found quite helpful in changing the behaviour of the deliquent children. The teacher should cure such children making use of this theory.

8)      With the help of this theory the teacher can control the negative emotions of the children such as anger, jealousy etc.

9)      The teacher can improve his teaching methods making use of this theory. He must observe the effects of his teaching methods on the students and should not hesitate to make necessary changes in them, if required.

10)   The theory pays more emphasis on oral drill work. Thus, a teacher should conduct oral drill of the taught contents. This help in strengthening the learning more.